International Journal of Pharmaceutical Process Chemistry

Beyond the Tablet and Injection: A Drug-Specific Framework for Selecting Oral, Buccal, Transdermal, Nasal, and Microneedle Delivery Routes for Peptide and Protein Therapeutics

Rehan Haider, Zameer Ahmed, Sambreen Zameer, Shabana Naz Shah, Geetha Kumari Das — Thu, 03 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Peptide and protein therapeutics have transformed the treatment of diabetes, endocrine disorders, inflammatory diseases, cancer, and several rare conditions because of their high biological specificity and potent pharmacological activity. However, most of these medicines still depend on injections because their large molecular size, hydrophilicity, structural instability, enzymatic susceptibility, and limited membrane permeability make conventional non-invasive administration difficult. Although oral, buccal, transdermal, nasal, and microneedle systems have developed rapidly, no single route is suitable for every peptide or protein. The choice of delivery route should therefore be based on the characteristics of the individual therapeutic rather than on the general assumption that one route is universally superior. This narrative review proposes a drug-specific framework for selecting alternative delivery routes according to molecular size, potency, dose requirement, half-life, stability, target tissue, permeability, required onset, dosing frequency, patient acceptability, formulation complexity, and translational feasibility. Published evidence concerning oral, buccal, transdermal, nasal, and microneedle delivery was critically examined, with particular attention to the physiological barriers and formulation technologies associated with each route. Oral delivery provides the greatest convenience but is highly sensitive to gastrointestinal degradation and variable absorption. Buccal delivery avoids the gastrointestinal tract and may provide systemic absorption, although limited surface area and salivary clearance remain important constraints. Nasal delivery can provide rapid systemic exposure but is influenced by mucociliary clearance and mucosal tolerability. Conventional transdermal delivery is generally unsuitable for large hydrophilic biologics, whereas microneedles can temporarily bypass the stratum corneum and provide a more realistic transdermal option. The proposed framework emphasizes route–drug matching, recognizing that successful development depends on balancing bioavailability, safety, stability, dose feasibility, patient preference, manufacturing requirements, and regulatory considerations. Such an approach may improve selection of delivery platforms and reduce unnecessary development of formulations that are unlikely to translate clinically.

In Silico Evaluation of Bioactive Phytoconstituents from Coccinia grandis Against Protein Targets Relevant to Acne Pathophysiology (1T65 and 2Z80)

Ramesh K, Nepolean R, Vinothkumar S, Baskar N, Amaravathi D, Atchayabala T — Mon, 07 Sep 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Microbial colonization and hormonal imbalance are the main causes of acne vulgaris, a chronic inflammatory skin condition. The growing shortcomings of traditional treatments underscore the need for safer and more potent alternatives. This study uses a structure-based molecular docking technique to assess the binding capability of certain phytoconstituents from Coccinia grandis against important acne-associated protein targets (1T65 and 2Z80). While target proteins were recovered, processed, and docked using PyRx combined with AutoDock Vina, bioactive substances reported from the plant were identified and optimized. Pharmacokinetic characteristics, interaction patterns, and binding affinities were all methodically examined. The findings showed that the selected phytoconstituents exhibited predicted binding affinities ranging from −7.3 to −8.9 kcal/mol. Kaempferol showed the most favorable predicted binding affinity toward 2Z80 (−8.9 kcal/mol), whereas β-sitosterol showed the most favorable predicted binding affinity toward 1T65 (−8.7 kcal/mol). For the majority of substances, pharmacokinetic analysis revealed excellent absorption properties and tolerable drug-likeness. Overall, the results show that Coccinia grandis phytochemicals have a great deal of potential as inhibitors of acne-related targets, demonstrating their significance as viable options for additional experimental validation and the creation of alternative therapeutic approaches for the treatment of acne.

Nanosponge-Based Co-Delivery of Clotrimazole and Curcumin for Enhanced Antifungal Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Prachi Tiwari, Saurav Ghoshal, Arvind Kumar Srivastava, Shrestha Singh — Wed, 08 Jul 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Fungal infections impact more than one billion individuals worldwide and rank among the most common infectious ailments seen in clinical dermatology. Despite the availability of antifungal treatments for many years, treatment failures are still alarmingly frequent due to inadequate drug penetration through the stratum corneum, the creation of drug-resistant biofilms, and the rising occurrence of azole-resistant fungal strains. This review investigates nanosponge technology as a sophisticated drug delivery method that can concurrently tackle these interconnected issues. The study thoroughly analyze the epidemiology and pathophysiology of both superficial and invasive mycoses, examines the pharmacological characteristics and inherent formulation challenges of two complementary antifungal agents—clotrimazole and curcumin—and discusses the structural, synthetic, and functional attributes of cyclodextrin-based nanosponge systems. The mechanistic rationale for integrating these two medications within a cohesive nanosponge platform is thoroughly assessed, including evidence of true pharmacological synergism from checkerboard assays, biofilm inhibition tests, and in vivo studies in murine models. Methods for preparation, such as emulsion solvent diffusion, melt crosslinking, and ultrasound-assisted synthesis, are analyzed along with optimization frameworks based on quality-by-design principles. Significant findings from the literature spanning 2020 to 2025 are summarized, and prospective directions, including stimuli-responsive drug release, fungal-targeting surface modifications, and early-phase clinical assessments, are explored. The gathered evidence positions co-loaded nanosponges of clotrimazole and curcumin as a scientifically strong and clinically promising candidate for advanced topical antifungal treatment.